Party Policies
The next step for the Nazis after propaganda was to institutionalise their ideologies and persecute those who fell outside of their margins. With the founding of the Reichsmusikkammer (RMK) in 1933, which was presided over by Goebbels, membership was compulsory for any musician hoping to enjoy a smooth career. This allowed the party to oversee all musical activity. Following the passing of the Enabling Act in March, Hitler was given legal authority to establish a dictatorship, and subsequently, with the Law for the Restoration of the Civil Service in April, the party could dismiss any state-employed musician and replace him with someone more politically obeisant.[14]
With the radio and media under control, the Nazis were fast gaining a grip over all cultural life. More gradual radicalisation of policy began in 1936, as the party intervened more decisively and directly with modern visual art, and with the expansion of bureaucracy, organised more programs and propaganda. The Degenerate Art Exhibition, which opened in Munich on 19 July 1937, showcased artworks purged from German’s state museums and galleries. The Degenerate Music Exhibition followed soon after on 24 May 1938. It was a turning point signifying more drastic transformations to come. |
Meanwhile, the Jewish musicians displaced from employment and other anti-Nazi Germans who did not wish to conform to fascism reacted differently to the changing circumstances. Some, like Schnabel and Kreisler, escaped early. But for many Jewish musicians who had been born and raised in Germany, held citizenship, and basically regarded themselves as ordinary Germans, leaving was not a straightforward option. Besides attachment to the country and their property, some were under the impression that the excesses of the regime were a temporary phenomenon that would abate with time, which is plausible considering that the Nazi’s clamp down on cultural life happened gradually. With many inconsistencies in the execution of their policies, there was relative freedom in the years before 1938. More importantly, there were practical reasons such as financial circumstances and the potential for employment if one immigrated. Emigration taxes imposed upon those who applied to leave served as a further deterrent, as people believed their life savings would be lost once they left.
It is often assumed that once the Nazis came into power, all artistic freedom ceased and only propaganda was allowed to survive, and thus a black hole exists in the study of 20th century musical developments in the Third Reich. Musicologists have tended to focus on the impact of Hitler’s policies which forced the emigration of many significant musical figures to other European countries or America, but the majority of musicians remained, with varying degrees of prosperity. Even without underestimating the cruelty of the regime or undermining the courage of those who stayed behind, the notion that music entered a ‘Dark Age’ does not stand up to scrutiny. In fact there was a much greater degree of creative enterprise, even for the Jews.
It is often assumed that once the Nazis came into power, all artistic freedom ceased and only propaganda was allowed to survive, and thus a black hole exists in the study of 20th century musical developments in the Third Reich. Musicologists have tended to focus on the impact of Hitler’s policies which forced the emigration of many significant musical figures to other European countries or America, but the majority of musicians remained, with varying degrees of prosperity. Even without underestimating the cruelty of the regime or undermining the courage of those who stayed behind, the notion that music entered a ‘Dark Age’ does not stand up to scrutiny. In fact there was a much greater degree of creative enterprise, even for the Jews.
Cultural Ghetto
Following mass persecution, the regime had to minimise the influence of the remaining Jews. Though there was little fear for defiance as the majority of German society supported the persecution at the time, the presence of a disaffected minority could pose a potential threat to internal security. Thus, the Kulturbund deutscher Juden (Jewish Cultural League) was created as a temporary solution to segregate the Jews from German cultural activities, allowing them to remain creative while isolated from the rest of the German population. Not only would this allow the displaced Jews a means of livelihood, the façade of cultural autonomy was a useful tool for Nazi propaganda outside of Germany, to show the outside world that the Jews were not treated so harshly.[15] This policy of cultural apartheid postponed further decisions on the Jewish problem, and was effectively a cultural ghettoisation that would anticipate their physical ghettoisation in the concentration camps later on. The organisation was to be staffed by Jewish artists, financed by Jews themselves and for the exclusive benefit of Jewish audiences. All programmes had to be approved officially by the Nazis, and press could not report or even acknowledge the organisation’s existence. Slowly and calculatedly, the Nazis tried to silence the Jewish voice. It was said that the Kulturbund provided Jews an opportunity to ponder their national and cultural origins, to reflect on the question of their assimilation with non-Jewish Germans or their difference from, or likeness to, Eastern European Jewry.[16] Perhaps the greatest irony was that, like the Nazis, the Jews soon discovered that “Jewish music” was not an artistic genre in and of itself, and it was difficult to distinguish between ‘German’ and ‘Jewish’ music. Hence, they resorted to using derivative definitions, such as libretti written by Jews, and practiced self-censorship by forsaking works of Wagner and Strauss, who were considered to be proprietarily German.[17]
Once the war broke out, the Kulturbund was quickly dissolved – by September 1941, it was officially banned, and practically all its members were arrested and interned in concentration camps. Some were taken to Theresienstadt (Terezín), where, as a ‘model camp’, they were allowed to put on musical activities for the benefit of Nazi propaganda abroad. The functions of this camp will be discussed in greater detail in the section on Ullmann, who, of all the composers unwillingly residing in Terezín, left the deepest mark on the musical activities there.
Once the war broke out, the Kulturbund was quickly dissolved – by September 1941, it was officially banned, and practically all its members were arrested and interned in concentration camps. Some were taken to Theresienstadt (Terezín), where, as a ‘model camp’, they were allowed to put on musical activities for the benefit of Nazi propaganda abroad. The functions of this camp will be discussed in greater detail in the section on Ullmann, who, of all the composers unwillingly residing in Terezín, left the deepest mark on the musical activities there.
Loopholes
Meanwhile in Germany, the Nazi's cultural policy was not exactly cohesive. Despite the Nazi’s best efforts to expunge ‘modernism’ and promote what they defined as Aryan music, the practical application of their ideologies was not so simple due to ambiguities, compromises and inconsistencies of outlook. Irreconcilable differences in aims and the rivalry between Rosenberg and Goebbels resulted in loopholes which some artists exploited to gain some degree of artistic freedom. The most influential Jewish individuals such as Schoenberg and Kurt Weill were of course targeted right from the beginning, but elsewhere, the Nazi’s implementation of their ideologies was not so consistent. Often, the political attitudes and racial origins of an individual were of much greater significance than their aesthetic standpoints.[18] Werner Egk, for instance, whose works were featured prominently and who prospered throughout the Reich, drew a fine balance between modernism and accessibility. He combined clear tonality and Bavarian folk material with Stravinskian writing and complicated rhythmic patterns in works such as Peer Gynt and Carmina Burana. Jazz was also allowed to survive, albeit in a modified form, as Goebbels realised its very popularity with the younger population meant that in order to ensure their continuous support of the regime and maintain the morale of troops, compromises had to be made.[19] Thus, the artistic climate was not a barren wasteland and there was some autonomy for those who remained in the country.